英语词汇学第一章

英语词汇学第一章
英语词汇学第一章

重点、难点讲解

在我们做具体讨论之前,有必要弄清楚有关词和词汇的一些基本概念。词是一个很模糊的概念,所以在讨论前要先仔细思考一番。声音和意义的关系,声音与形式的关系,词与词汇的关系,也都需要讨论。此外,本章我们还将对词汇分类的常用标准进行考察,并对个别词类作一些说明。

1.词的定义(What Is a Word)

什么是词?这一问题长期受到语言学家的关注,虽然人们提出了很多的定义,但似乎没有一个看起来完美无缺,迄今为止,学者们也未能在词的定义这个问题上达成一致。

当我们谈论词时,我们往往从词的视觉角度来考虑。按照这一思路词可以定义为横向书写或印刷在纸上的一组有意义的字母。从口语的角度下定义,词是用人类发音器官有意识地发出来的一个或一个声音组合。语义学家认为,词是一个意义单位。语法学家则认为,词是一个自由形式可以在句子中起作用。总的来说,词的定义包括下列几点:①是语言最小的自由形式;②是声音统一体;③是意义单位;④在句子中能独立起作用的形式。

由此,我们可以下这样一个定义:词是二门语言中具有一定的声音、意义和句法功能的最小的自由形式。

无论是简单词,还是复杂词,都必须符合以上的定义标准。Man和fine是两个简单词,但都有声音、意义和句法功能,都可以在句子中单独起作用,所以它们是词。有些词结构复杂,如mis·for·tune和man·age·ment。两个都是多音节词,在句子中能起“主语”、“宾语”和“表语”的作用。虽然misfortune能再分成mis-和fortune,前缀mis-并不能独立成词。同样,management也可以分为manage和-ment,-ment也不能自由使用。Blackmail可以分为black和mail,这两个部分在句子中都可以单独使用,但汇合后的词义绝对不是两个词意义的叠加。Black是一种颜色,与“白”相对,而mail的含义则是“邮件”。但这两个词合并在一起时,意思是“讹诈”,因此blackmail是另一个词(COD《当代牛津英语词典》)。

2.声音和意义(Sound and Meaning)

词是表示世界上事物的符号。世界上的每一种文化都有一个相同的地方,—定的声音代表该语言系统以外的一定的人、物、地点、性质、过程、活动等。这种符号和意义之间的联系差不多是任意的,也就是说在代表一个事物或一个概念的声音和这个事物或概念本身之间没有逻辑关系(10dwingandBarrett,1973)。狗之所以被称为dog并不是因为这个声音以及这三个字母在一起就让人自然而然地联想到这种动物,这个词只是一个象征符号。声音与意义之间的关系是约定俗成的,因为操同一种语言的人们都一致采用这一组声音表示这种动物。同一概念在不同的语言中可以用不同的声音来表示。比如,woman一词,德语中是Frau,法语中是femme,汉语中是“妇女”。另一方面,同一个声音[mi:t]可以表示三个不同的词:meet(遇见),meat(肉)和mete(分配)。再如knight和night,前者表示“骑士”,而后者表示“夜”,

虽然指代不同的事物,但发音却是一样的。

3.声音和形式(Sound and Form)

一般认为,一门自然语言的书写形式是这门语言口语形式的书面记录,所以书面形式应与口语形式相符。换句话说,声音应与书写形式相似。这一点在英语的早期——古英语时期尤其如此。那时文字对言语的记录比现在更为准确。随着语言的发展,声音和形式之间出现越来越多的差异。产生差异的内在原因是英语字母表采用了罗马字母表,结果使得英语中的每个音位不能都用单独的字母来表示,有些字母必须身兼双职,或组合在一起使用。

另一个原因是许多年来发音比拼写变化得要快。在某些情况下,两者相差甚远。近五百年来,虽然英语语音发生相当大的变化,但拼写并没有发生显著的变化。

第三个原因是早期英语书写员所造成的一些差异。在那个时候,由于人们不常看到印刷的文字,所以拼写上的差异并不是十分重要,而当时的拼写也不像今天那样固定,因此人们对于有些英语单词究竟应该怎么拼写也没有确切的意见。有时候为了凑成一行,或者为了更容易辨认,人们还有意更改一些词的拼写形式。在印刷术传至英国以前,所有的书籍文章都是手写的。书写员们以抄写为生,经常为了满足国王、教堂和商人们的需要而匆忙抄写,这样就有了一个问题,几个像i,u,V,m,w和n等短竖笔画的字母写得都差不多一样,导致书写员的字迹难以辨认清楚。为了解决这个问题,他们将m,n,或v前的U改成O。这就是sum,cum,wuman,wunder munk等词就变成了some(一些),come(来),woman(女人),wonder(疑惑),monk(和尚)。在.某一时期书写员自行决定,英语单词不应以u或v作词尾,于是便在词尾加上了不发音的e,如live(生活),have(有),due(正当的)和true(真正的)(Deighton,1979)。

16世纪末,印刷术日趋成熟,这有助于使单词的拼写形式得以固定,拼写的标准化使得拼写变成一件神圣的事。词典在拼写的定形上起了一定的作用,而与此同时语音仍继续变化,因而造成了声音与形式的更大差异。

最后一个原因是借词,借词是扩充英语词汇的重要渠道。英语从其他语种借来单词时,也同时借来了拼写形式。早期的借词已逐渐被英语同化,但后来的借词仍与英语的拼写有差异。如:stimulus(拉丁语,刺激),denouement(法语,结局),fiesta(西班牙语,宗教节日),eureka(希腊语,我发现了!)以及kimono(日语,和服)等。

由此可见,英语书面形式并不完全代。表口语形式。历史上英美学者不断有人尝试改革英语拼写,但都未获成功。书面形式与口语形式虽然有差异,但80%以上的单词符合拼写规则。那些看似不规则的拼写,其规则程度和实用性远远超过了人们对它们的认识程度。比如,hymn(赞美诗),condemn(谴责),bomb(炸弹),它们的最后一个字母是不发音的,被扩展后这个字母就变成了发音字母了:hymnal(赞美诗般的),condemnation(谴责),bombard(轰炸)。

4.词汇(Vocabulary)

一门语言所有的单词构成该语言的词汇。“词汇(vocabulary)”一词具有不同的含义。它不仅仅可以指称一门语言的全部诃汇,而且还可指某一特定历史时期的词

汇,如,古英语词汇、中古英语词汇和现代英语词汇。我们还可用该词指称某一种方言的词汇、某一本书的词汇、某一学科的词汇,甚至还可指某个人掌握的词汇量。英语是世界上高度发达的语言之一,其词汇量也是最大最丰富的。据初步统计,当代英语的词汇量已超过了一百万。

5.词汇的分类(Classification of Words)

英语词汇包括各种各样的词。它们可以根据不同需要,按不同标准划分词类。按使用频率分,可以分为基本词汇和非基本词汇;按概念来分,可以分为实义词和功能词l-按起源来分,可分为本族语词和借词。

(1)基本词汇和非基本词汇(Basic Word Stock and Non—basic V ocabulary)

一门语言的基本词汇是几个世纪以来长期积累的,构成该门语言的共核。虽然基本词汇只占英语词汇总量的一小部分,但却是最重要的部分。基本词汇具有下列明显的特点:

1)全民性(A11 national character)

基本词汇指称我们身边世界最常见的事物和现象,对于使用这门语言的人们来说是必不可少的。基本词汇包括下列几个方面:

自然现象:rain(雨),snow(雪),fire(火),water(水),sun(太阳),moon(月亮),spring(春天),summer(夏天),wind(风),hill(山)等;

人体和人们之间的关系:head(头),foot(脚),hand(手),face (脸),father(父亲),mother(母亲),brother(兄弟),sister(姐妹),Son(儿子),daughter(女儿)等;

动、植物名称:oak(橡树),pine(松树),grass(草),pear(梨),apple(苹果),tree(树),horse(马),COW(牛),sheep(羊),cat(猫),dog(狗),chicken(鸡)等;

行为、大小、范畴和状态等:come(来),go(去),eat(吃),hear (听),beat(打),carry(携带),good(好),evil(恶),old(老),young (年轻),hot(热),heavy(重),white(白),black(黑)等;

数词、代词、介词、连词等:one(一),ten(十),hundred(百),I(我),you(你),your(你的),who(谁),in(在……里),out(在外面),under(在……下面),and(和),but(但是),till(直到),as(像)等。

这些词汇是每一个讲英语的人不管出身、教育程度、职业、地域、文化等方面有何差异都要用到的。

2)稳定性(Stability)

基本词汇有几个世纪的使用历史,如:man,fire,mountain,water,sun,moon等,因为指称的都是日常生活中最普遍的事物,这些词一直稳定不变。不过这种不变是相对的。实际上,基本词汇也经历了一此变化。如:arrow(箭),bow(弓),chariot(马车),knight(骑士)等过去使用的很普遍但现在已不属于基本词汇的范畴了,而electricity厂申,),machine(机器),Car(汽车),plane(飞机),computer(计算机),radio(收音机),television(电视)等,指称现代生活方式和新生事物的词,成了基本词汇。但这种变化是缓慢的。在基本词汇中增加的词多,减少的词少。

3)多产性(Productivity)

基本词汇大多是根词或单音节词,可以单独使用,但也可和其他根词和词缀一起构成新词。如:foot(脚、英尺):footage(英尺长度),football(足球),footpath(人行道),footer(步行者),footfall(脚步),footed(有足的),footloose(关系自由自在的),footling(愚蠢的),footman(步兵,马车夫),footing(立足点),footpring(脚印)等。同样,dog可以构成doglike(像狗一样的),doghood(狗性),dogcart(狗拉的车),dog—cheap(极便宜的),dog-ear(书的折页),dog-fall(平局),dogfight(狗咬狗),doghole(狗窝),dogpaddle(狗爬式游泳),dogsleep (打盹,假寐)等等。

4)多义性(Polysemy)

基本词汇中的词由于在长期使用过程中都经历过语义变化,拥有多种意义,因而变成多义词。仅举一例子加以说明。动词take的义项有:a.从一处向另一处移动或搬动;b.偷拿,错拿;c.抓住,逮住:d.为自己取得;e.用手抓;f.接受;g.忍受;h,需要(一定量的时间);i.采取与……有关的行动;J,测量;k.写下;1。取得预期效果或成功地做(LDCE《朗文当代英语词典》)。

5)搭配性(Collocability)

基本词汇的许多词构成许多惯用法、习语、谚语等。这样的例子数不胜数。以heart为例: a change of heart(变心,变节),after one’s heart (正中下怀,正如某人所愿);

a heart of gold (金子般的心,心善的);at heart(在心里,真心地);break one’s heart (使某人伤心);cross one’s heart (在胸口画十字,发誓);cry one's heart out(痛哭); eat one’s heart out(极度悔恨或悲伤);have one’s heart in one’s mouth (心跳到嗓子眼里,吓一大跳);heart and hand(全心全意地);heat and soul(全心全意地,热心地);one’s heat sinks within one(心灰意冷);take something to heart(对某事很在意);wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve(心直口快);with all one's heart(诚心诚意,诚恳地)等。

当然并不是基本词汇中所有的词都具有以上这些特点。代词和数词使用范围广泛,也十分稳定,但在语义上却非常单一,构词能力和搭配能力也很有限。因此,在以上这些特征中,全民性是最重要的特征。

不具备上述特征的词不属于该语言的共核。这些词包括:

1)术语(Terminology)

术语是指特定学科和学术领域所使用的专业词语。如医学用语:photoscanning(摄影扫描),hepatitis(肝炎),indigestion(消化不良),penicillin(青霉素)等;数学用语:algebra(代数学),trigonometry(三角学),calculus(微积分学)等;音乐用语:symphony(交响乐),orchestra(交响乐团),sonata(奏鸣曲),concerto(大提琴)等;教育学用语:audiovisual(视听的),megauniversity(拥有数万学生的大学),microteaching(微型教学短训班)等。

2)行话(Jargon)

行话是从事艺术、科学、商业和其他职业人员内部所使用专门的词汇。如商业行话:bottom line(不可避免的结果),bargaining chips(谈判中任何一方所拥有的优势,筹码);赛马行话:hold him back(阻止某一匹马赢),hold him in(让马在开赛初跑在后面以保留精力准备最后冲刺);医学行话:paranoid(可疑的,焦虑的),persona(人物),

hypo(皮下注射器);军事行话:buster(炸弹)。这些词汇一般是业外人士难以理解的。

3)俚语(Slang)

俚语属于非标准语言,介于标准普通词语,包括人人都会用的非正式词语和小团体部使用的词语如隐语、行话和黑话之间,这些词在特定团体的人群中广泛使用。有些词被标上“俚语”并不是因为它们的发音和形式,而是因为用法,比如:dough(生面团)和bread(面包)作为食物名称是标准词汇,但当“钱”讲时是俚语。同样,grass(草) 和pot(锅),分别作为植物名称和炊具是标准词汇,但作“大麻”讲是俚语。诸如beaver作“女孩”讲,smoky bear作“警察”讲,catch作“谈话”讲,holler当“呼叫”讲,roger当“懂得”讲,X-rays当“雷达”讲时都是俚语(Reader's Digest 《读者文摘》,1983)。“头”的概念用俚语表示时可以有nut,dome,upper,bear,block等。“醉”的意思如用俚语表示有多达三百多个,如elevated,merry,jolly,comfortable,boiled,grassy,tight,knocked out,blue-eyed,fried,paralyzed,pickled,stiff,stunned等(Qin,1986)。

这些例子说明俚语大多是现在词汇语义的改变或扩展,当然也有少数是新词语。俚语使用范围广泛,几乎所有人都用上一些俚语,有的人还经常在话语中夹杂俚语,不在办公室工作的人,很少出席正式场合的人,经常与密友呆在一起而与关系一般的人相处较少的人,他们用俚语最多,因为俚语表意丰富,粗犷生动,表达清楚,给人印象深刻。正如有些人所说,俚语不虚假。它不加任何修饰,直截了当。

4)黑话(Argot)

黑话是犯罪分子的行话,仅用于亚文化人群,外人几乎是不懂的。如can-opener(万能钥匙),dip(偷窃)和persuader(匕首)等。

5)方言词语(Dialectal words)

方言词语限于操该种方言的人所使用。如beauty(澳大利亚英语,优秀,伟大),chook(澳大利亚英语,鸡),cocky(澳大利亚英语,小农场主),station(澳大利亚英语,牧场),auld(苏格兰英语,老的),bluid(苏格兰英语,血),C00(苏格兰英语,奶牛),hame (苏格兰英语,家),lough(爱尔兰英语,湖),bog(爱尔兰英语,沼泽,湿地)等。

6)古语词(Archaisms)

古语词是指过去曾经广泛使用,而现在则仅限于某些特定范围内使用的词,主要在古诗、法律文件、宗教文献和布道中出现。如thou(你),ye(你们的),thee(你的宾格),wilt(将要),brethren(兄弟),troth(誓约),quoth(说),anght(任何事情),hereof(关于这一点),therefrom(从那一点),wherein(在何处,在其中)等。

7)新词语(Neologisms)

新词语是指新创的词语及表达方式,或被赋予新义的旧词。下面是引自《12000词》(12,000 Words)一书中的几个例子:

microelectionics微电子学

futurology未来学

AIDS艾滋病(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

E-mail电子邮件(electronic mail)

internet国际互联网,英特网

freak out以吸毒来逃避现实与社会,麻痹

(2)实义词和功能词(Content Words and Functional Words)

词汇可以根据概念分成实义词和功能词。实义词明确表述概念简称实词,包括名词、动词、形容词、副词和数词,指称物体、现象、行为、品质、状态、程度、数量等earth(地球),cloud(云),run(跑),walk(散步),bright(明亮),dark(黑暗),never(从不),frequently(经常),five(五),December(十二月)等都是实词。

功能词本身不具有实义,因此又称虚词。虚词的功能就是表达两个实义之间词与词、句子与句子之间的关系,也可称为形式词。虚词包括介词、连词、助动词和冠词,如:on,of,upon,end,but,do (does,did),be(am,is,are,were,was),a,the等。

实义词构成英语词汇的主体,数量巨大,而且还在不断增加,而功能词只占词汇量中的一小部分,并且十分稳定。然而功能词在英语中的作用是实义词无法比拟的。根据Stuart Robertson等人(1957)的研究,英语中九个功能词and,be,have,it, of,the,will,to,you占英语词语使用量的1/4。这一点通过下例可以说明。这三句话总共27个词中,只有9个是实词,而其余的都是功能词。

①It is fun to play with children.和孩子们一起玩很有意思。

②It is certain that they have forgotten the address。他们肯定忘了地址。

③The more I see the film,the more I like it.这部电影我越看越喜欢。

(3)本族语词和借词(Native Words and Borrowed Words)

从起源上看,英语词汇可分为本族语词和外来语词。英语本族语词是公元五世纪由日耳曼部落盎格鲁人、萨克逊人和朱特人带入不列颠的,又称盎格鲁一萨克逊词语。源于盎格鲁一萨克逊的词语数量较少,约有5万至6万词,但构成了英语的基本词汇的主干,是这门语言词汇的共核,因此基本词汇的特点也就是本族语词的特征。除了基本词汇的共同特征以外,与借词相比,本族语词还具有另外两个.特点。

1)语体中性(Neutral in style)。由于本族语词指称的是人类社会最常见的事物,任何人不分地点、不分场合、不分时间,都要使用这类词,因此没有特定的文体。通过同义词之间的比较可以看出这一点,如:

begin(开始) —commence(法语)

brotherly(兄弟般的,亲密的) —fraternal(法语)

kingly(国王的,威严的) —rayal (法语) —regal(拉丁语)

rise(升起) —mount(法语) —ascend(拉丁语)

标注N的词为英语本族语词,而后面的是借词。从文体上讲,本族语词无正式不正式之分,而来自法语和拉丁语的外来语词则富有学术色彩,适用于正式文体。

2)使用频繁(Frequent in use)。本族语词在日常口语和写作中使用得最为频繁。本族语词与借词相比在数量上略逊一筹,但在使用频率上却是借词无法比拟的;本族语词使用频率为70%至90%。下列的一些统计数字就说明了这一点:

作者和书籍本族语词借词

斯宾塞86%147/o

莎士比90%10%

钦定本《圣经》94%6%

弥尔顿81%19%

阿迪逊82%18%

斯威夫特75%25%

柏普80%20%

约翰逊72% 28%

休谟73%27%

吉朋70%30%

麦考莱75%25%

丁尼生88%12%

以上这些数字不适用于各种语言使用的环境,在学术领域和科学领域中源于法语、拉丁语或希腊语的词汇是很常用的。

来自于外语的词简称外来词或借词。英语从其他主要语言中借用了大量的词,涉及的源语言囊括世界上所有的大语种。据估计,现代英语词汇有80%是借词。据《美国大百科全书》称,“英语借词繁多。任何一本英语词典收录的词有80%左右都是借词”(1980,卷10,P.423)。由于广泛地借词,英语也以词源的繁杂而著称。Baugh (1978)称英语词汇是“世界性的词汇”:这话指出了英语词汇的实质:根据同化的程度和借取的方式我们把借词归为四类。

1)同化词(Denizens。同化词是指早期从外语中所借后来已被英语完全同化了的词。换言之,它们发音和拼写已遵循英语的规则。有些词的同化程度很高,只有一些专业人员才知道它们原来的起源。这些词都是早期从拉丁语、希腊语、法语和斯堪的纳维亚语中借来的。如:port(港口)来自于protus(拉丁语),cup(杯子)来自于cuppa(拉丁语),shift(转移)来自于skipta(古挪威语),skirt(衬衣)来自于skyrta (古挪威语),change(变化)来自于changier (法语),pork(猪肉)来自于porc(法语)。

2)非同化词(Aliens)。非同化词是仍保留原来发音和拼写形式的借词,仅从这些词的形式上就能看出是外来语词。如:decor(舞台装饰,法语),blitzkrieg(闪电战,德语),kowtow(叩头,汉语),bazaar (集市,波斯语),raja(酋长,印地语),status quo(现状,拉丁语),intermezzo,间奏曲,意大利语),emir(埃米尔,阿尔伯语)等。

3)译借词(Translation-loans)。译借词是利用英语现有的词语,依照其他语言的构成模式,构成的词语。译借词还可再细分为:

根据意义译出来的借词(意译借词)(Words translated according to the meaning),如:

mother tongue(母语)译自lingua materna (拉丁语)

long time no see译自汉语的“好久没见”

surplus value (剩余价值)译自Mehrwert(德语)

masterpiece (杰作)译自Meisterstuck (德语)

black humour (黑色幽默)译自humour hoir(法语)

根据声音译出来的借词(音译借词)(Words translated according to the sound),如:kulak(富农)译自kyrak(俄语)。

ketchup(番茄酱)译自汉语方言的“茄汁”

lama(喇嘛)译自lama(藏语)

tea(茶)译自汉语方言的“茶”

4) 借义词(Semantic-loans)。借义词保留本族语词词形,而只借取词义。换句话说,已有英语词被赋予借取来的新的含义。比如dream。这个词原义是“高兴”、“音乐”而现义“梦”,是借自古挪威语。Pioneer旧义是“探索者,或从事开拓工作的人”,现义“少年队员”是从俄语中借取过来的。Dumb“愚蠢”的词义借自德语,词“dumm”。而“fresh”受德语fresh的影响,具有“鲁莽的,莽撞的,无礼的”的含义。

课后练习题

1.Which of the following is Not true?

A. A word is the smallest form of a language.

B.A word is a sound unity.

C.A word has a given meaning.

D.A word can be used freely in a sentence.

2.The differences between sound and form are due to .

A.the fact of more phonemes than letters in English

B.Stabilization of spelling by printing

C.influence of the work of scribes

D. innovations made by linguists

3.of the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock,the most important is .

A. all national charater B.productivity

C. polysemy D.collocability

4.Complete the f0llowing statements by supplying an appropriate term for each blank.

(1) Borrowed words which still sound foreign and look foreign are .

(2) There is no relationship between sound and as the connection

between them is and conventional.

(3) are borrowings that have become naturalized or assimilated in English.

(4) Archaisms are words no longer in use or in use.

(5) Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are .

words enjoy a frequency in use than content words.

(6)A word whose meaning was borrowed from another language is called .

5. What is vocabulary?

6. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.

7. Choose the standard word from the column on the fight to match each of the slang

words on the left.

①tart girl

②bloke police

③gat great

④swell drunk

⑤chicken coward

⑥blue loose woman

⑦smoky pistol

⑧full fight

⑨dame fellow

⑩beaver woman

8. Give the modern equivalents for the following archaic words:

haply albeit methinks eke sooth morn

troth ere quoth hallowed billow bade

9. Explain neologisms with examples.

10. How do you account for the role of native words in English in relation to

loan-words?

11. Group the following borrowed words into denizens, aliens, translation loans and antic loans:

Confrere wall kettle

Skirt chopstick dream

Typhoon gift pro patria

Husband die parvenu

Wunderkind bloom mikado

black humour silk long time no see

课后练习参考答案

1. A

2. D

3. A

4. (1) aliens

(2) intrinsic / logical, meaning, arbitrary

(3) Denizens

(4) common, obsolete

(5) stable, Functional, higher

(6) semantic loan

5. V ocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.

6. A word is a phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funii in Chinese

7. ①loose woman②fellow ③pistol ④great ⑤coward

⑥fight ⑦police ⑧drunk ⑨woman ⑩girl

8. haply = perhaps albeit - although

methinks = it seems to me eke = also

sooth- faith morn- morning

troth = faith ere = before

quoth - said hallowed - holy

billow = wave / the sea bade=bid

9. By neologisms are meant newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, email (electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems)is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word mouse might exemplify the words taking on new meanings: Now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.

10. Native words are those of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number. Loan-words are borrowed from other languages. It is estimated loan-words constitute about 80% of the modern English vocabulary. Native words cannot compare with loanwords in number, but have a more important role in the language. Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock whereas only a limited number of borrowed words belong to the common core.

11. aliens: confrere, pro patria, Wunderkind, mikado, parvenu denizens: kettle, die, wall, skirt translation loans: chopstick, silk, long time no see, black humour, typhoon semantic loans: dream, bloom, gift

(There is overlapping between these classes, e.g. typhoon can go to aliens, and silk to denizens.)

补充练习题及答案

1. Complete the following paragraphs with proper expressions according to the course

book.

(1) The definition of a word comprises the following points: A form of a

language; a ; a unit of ; a form that can . Therefore, we can say that “a word is a of a language that has a sound and and .”

(2) The form of English is an representation of the form. In spite

of the differences, at least of the English words fit consistent . And even those spellings that appear to be may have more and than we realize.

(3) The English vocabulary can be classified by different and for

different . Words may fall into the and by , into and by and into and by .

(4) Since words denote the thing in human society, they are used by all

people, in all , on all , and at all times.

(5) Stylistically, native words are neither nor whereas the words

borrowed from or are and , thus appropriate in

style.

2. Decide whether the following are true or false.

(1) A word can be defined in different ways from different points of view.

(2) Under no circumstances can sound and meaning be logically related.

(3) The introduction of printing press resulted in a lot more differences between sound

and form.

(4) The words person can use in speaking and writing form his active vocabulary.

(5) The principles by which to classify words are usage, notion and origin

(6) Native words are more popular than foreign words.

(7) Native words enjoy the same features as the basic word stock and more

3. Analyse the following words and state through what languages they came into English.

(1)cake (2)court (3) plunder (4)area

(5) colonnade (6) plaza (7) yashmak (8) ketchup

(9) czar (10) tragedy (11) honour (12) knife

(13) sonata (14) typhoon (15) myth (16) genius

(17) husband (18) formula (19) galleon (20) shikh

4. what are the characteristics of native words in English.

5. what are borrowed words in the English language? How many kinds of them does English have?

6. What is the inter relation between the native and foreign elements in the English vocabulary?

1.

(1) minimal free, sound unity, meaning, function alone in a sentence, minimal free from,

given, meaning, syntactic function

(2) written, imperfect, spoken, 80%, spelling pattern, irregular, regularity, usefulness

(3) criteria, purposes, the basic word stock, nonbasic-vocabulary, use frequency, content words, functional words, notion, native words, borrowed words, origin

(4) native, commonest, places, occasions

(5) formal, informal, French, Latin, literary, learned, formal

2.

(1)T (2)F (3)T (4)T (5)F (6)F (7)T

3.

(1) Danish (2) French (3)German (4)Latin (5)Italian

(6)Spanish (7)Arabic (8)Chinese (9)Russian (10)Greek

(11)French (12) Danish (13) Italian (14)Chinese (15) Greek

(16)Latin (17) Danish (18)Latin (19) Spanish (20)Arabic

4.

Native words are the foundation and the core of the English vocabulary. In structure they are mostly monosyllable words. In meaning they express the fundamental concepts dealing with everyday objects and things. In grammar they include most parts of speech. Native words have the following five characteristics:

(1)All national character;

(2)Collocability;

(3)Stability;

(4)Productivity;

(5)Polysemy.

In contrast to borrowed words, native words have two more features:

(1)Neutral in style

(2)Frequent in use

5.

Borrowed words or loan-words are words taken from foreign languages. Foreign borrowings may be divided into four groups according to their characters.

(1) Aliens-words borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spelling.e.g. coup d’etat, elite.

(2)Denizens-words borrowed from a foreign language with a transformation of the foreign sound and spelling. Namely, the foreign sound and spelling are Anglicized e.g. skin, get, give .

(3)Translation-loans—words borrowed from foreign languages by means of translation,

e.g. black humor (French: humour noir).

(4)Semantic borrowing—words which have acquired a new meaning under the influence of other languages, e.g. gift (Old English: the price of a wife-Scandinavian: present).

6.

In fact, no language has so complex and varied a vocabulary as English. The English vocabulary has been adopted from more than fifty languages. As a cosmopolitan language English has no rival. That is to say, up to seventy percent of the English vocabulary consists of loan-words, and only thirty percent is native words.

In spite of large-scale borrowings, it is the native words that form the basic stock of Modern English vocabulary. Although the actual number of native words is much smaller than the number of loan-words in the English vocabulary, native words are used in everyday speech and writing more frequently than borrowed words.

In the course of historical development borrowed words have extended the total number of the English vocabulary, and Latin or Greek roots, prefixes or suffixes have changed the structure of English words.

00832英语词汇学1107全国试题

全国2011年7月高等教育自学考试 英语词汇学试题 课程代码:00832 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and put the letter in the bracket. (30 %) 1. Grammarians insist that a word be a __________ form that can function in a sentence. ( ) A. small B. large C. fixed D. free 2. In the earliest stage of English, the written form of a word should ________ that of the oral form. ( ) A. agree with B. disagree with C. be the same as D. be different from 3. ____________consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine, mathematics, etc. ( ) A. Terminology B. Jargon C. Slang D. Argot 4. Social, economic and political changes bring about such new words as the followings EXCEPT_________. ( ) A. fast food B. TV dinner C. Mao jackets D. Watergate 5. Reviving archaic words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary. For instance, “loan”, which was prevalent in the thirteenth century, was replaced by “ __________ ” in American English. ( ) A. own B. let C. rent D. lend 6. If we say that Old English was a language of __________ endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings. ( ) A. full B. short C. long D. paralleled 00832# 英语词汇学试卷第1页共6页

2012 英语词汇学论文 英文版

成绩 Root and Affixation of Lexicology Abstract: It’s important and permanent to master the vocabulary in the English learning. Everyone who has ever set foot on English realizes that it’s somewhat incredible for us to reciting numerous and difficult words. Nevertheless, there are some skills we should acquire to make word-recitation easier and more effective. This paper mainly discusses the using of vocabulary root and affix. Only by having a good knowledge of the roots and affixes, can we prosper our English vocabulary and further our English study. Key words: root; affixation; detailed analysis; difficult words 1Introduction: Blindly reciting numerous and difficult words is a total waste of time and energy. Especially, situation becomes worse for the college students with little words storage and non-interest. However, most of the English words are comprised with roots and affixes, which are limited, stable and short. If we acquire them, it will be much simpler and rapider for us to recognize the unfamiliar and difficult words through the analysis on roots and affixes. If we can master and know how to use them properly, it will be a big step for the further study of this foreign language. A road of a thousand miles begins with each single step, so does the English words. Now we are going to learn the root and affixation respectively. Definition is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity and it carries the main component of meaning in a word. By learning the roots, we will find it not complicated for us to understand the long and difficult words which we often encounter in the tough reading test. However long and tough the word is, we can divide it into several parts, the fundamental part is the root and then we can understand what it means and fluently blurt it out without repeating it. Here are some detail analyses of the examples: Internationalist: nation is the root which means country or state, inter- is prefix meaning between or interactive, -al is the suffix and the –ist is the suffix meaning the person. So you will quite simply find its meaning. Invigorate: the root is vigor similar to power and energy, in- means making sth have the function of verb, here is make sth vigor, -ate is the verb suffix. So invigorate is to make sth vigorous. Antecedent: -ced- is the root referring to motion or going forward, ante- is before, and –ent means somebody. So antecedent is somebody who moves ahead of us, the same as forefather or ancestor. Protract: -tract is the root like pulling sth or extending sth make it wider or longer, pro- is the prefix meaning “ahead”. After analyzing this word, we know that “protract” is similar to prolong meaning make sth longer or longer to live. A lot of words contain this root, such as detract, extract, subtract, attract, tractable, intractable, etc. Arbitrariness: arbitrary is the root indicating to randomness or out of order, -ness is the noun suffix. The profound meaning of learning roots is that you will find it much easy to memorize words because there are so many word share the same root. No matter how long and hoe difficult the word is, the basic meaning of the word is stable and unchangeable. If we recite words according the

英语词汇学考试重点整理

Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出,表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by

(完整word版)英语词汇学复习大纲整理

1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word ( alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.) 1.2 sound and meaning :symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form : 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分: basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分: content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分: native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)

英语词汇学期末论文

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在日常生活中可以根据所处的环境,所见到、所摸到的事物,联想相关的英语单词。例如: 打球时联想到:ball,(play)basketball,(play)football,(play)volleyball,playground等等;吃饭时联想到:dining-room,(have)breakfast,(have)lunch,(have)supper等等;睡觉 时联想到:bed,bedroom,gotobed,sleep,gotosleep,fallasleep等等。如果长期坚持下支,效果就会很好。 四.归类记忆法 众所周知,单词本身、单词与单词之间都存在着或多或少的联系,英语词汇中 有许多单词有着其近义词、反义词、一词多义、一词多音、同音词或形音形似词等内 在或外在的联系。因此,记忆单词的主要方法是把单词之间存在的这种联系挖掘归纳 出来,通过对比、对照的方式把学过的单词从各个方面进行归类 1.按词的构造归类 按词跟、前缀、后缀、合成词归类,找出词与词最本质 的联系。这种联系不仅使新词记得快、记得牢、记得久,而 且也同时复习了大量的旧词。合成词,如: schoolbag,school-boy,classroom,football,blackboard,etc. 前缀后缀词,如:unhappy,unhealthy,unfriendly,unlucky,worker,writer,visitor,us

(完整版)英语词汇学试题

英语词汇学试题 Introduction and Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabula ry(练习1) I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement. 1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of _________construct. A. word B. form C. morpheme D. root 2.________ is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. A. Semantics B. Linguistics C. Etymology D. Stylistics 3.Modern English is derived from the language of early ______ tribes. A. Greek B. Roman C. Italian D. Germanic 4. Semantics is the study of meaning of different _________ levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. A. linguistic B. grammatical C. arbitrary D. semantic 5.Stylistics is the study of style . It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular________ for special effects A. situation B. context C. time D. place 6.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form , meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a _______ difference. A . spelling B. semantic C. pronunciation D. pragmatic 7. Terminology consists of _______ terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. A. technical B. artistic C. different D. academic 8. __________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate among themselves. A. Slang B. Jargon C. Dialectal words D. Argot 9 ._________ belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words. A. Jargon B. Argot C. Dialectal words D. Slang 10. Argot generally refers to the jargon of _______.Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it. A. workers B. criminals C. any person D. policeman 11.________ are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. A. Argot B. Slang C. Jargon D. Dialectal words 12. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. A. common B. little C. slight D. great 13. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings. A. new B. old C. bad D. good 14. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. A. functional B. notional C. empty D. formal 15. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called _______words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. A. content B. notional C. empty D. new

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