文体学简介 Chapter 1
Main contents in stylistics
Part One: Theoretical Preliminaries and Major Varieties of Eng lish Chapter 1 Style and Stylistics 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definitions of Style 1.3 Definitions of Stylistics 1.4 The Development of Stylistics 1.5 The Scope of Study Chapter 2 Procedure of Stylistic Analysis 2.1 Linguistic Description 2.2 A Checklist of Linguistic Description 2.3 Textual Analysis 2.4 Contextual Factors Analysis Chapter 3 Stylistic Functions of Linguistic Items 3.1 Stylistic Functions of Speech Sounds 3.2 Stylistic Functions of Graphological Items 3.3 Stylistic Functions of Lexical Items 3.4 Stylistic Functions of Syntactic/Grammatical Items
General description
1. Less difficult 2. More interesting 3. More practical
Course related Questions
Who
– Who is the founder of stylistics?
What
– What does stylistics study?
– 去世，牺牲，翘辫子，呜呼，仙逝，去了 去世，牺牲，翘辫子，呜呼，仙逝，
Examples (1)
A casual conversation A written report After his father’s death, peter had to change his job. When his dad died, peter had to get another job. On the decease of his father, Mr. Brown was obliged to seek alternative employment.
Know:
– The development of stylistics
1.1 Introduction: What does stylistics study?
Style in our daily life:
What is your style?
Style in our daily life:
Genre n.
Particular style or kind, esp. of works of art or literature grouped according to their form or subject matter 种类; 类型; （尤指按形式或主题划分的文艺 种类 类型 作品的）风格, 体裁: 作品的）风格 体裁 For example: The novel and short story are different genres. 长篇小说和短篇故事是不同的类别. 长篇小说和短篇故事是不同的类别
Preview questions
1. What is the definition of style? 2. What is the definition of stylistics? 3. What is the relationship between linguistics and stylistics?
Main contents in stylistics
Part Two: Varieties in Relation to Genre Chapter 8 The English of Conversation Chapter 9 The English of Public Speaking Chapter 10 The English of News Reporting(1): Gener al Knowledge Chapter 11 The English of News Reporting(2): Stylist ic Features Chapter 12 The English of Advertising Chapter 13 Literary English(1): The Novel Chapter 14 Literary English(2): Poetry Chapter 15 The English of Science and Technology Chapter 16 The English of Legal Documents References
Grandma:
– When I was a gal, they made a hole in each end
and sucked. We should use proper words in proper places. Using proper words in proper places is a very Conclusion important purpose of the study of language, which is also a great concern of “style”.
1.2 Definitions of style
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Style as form (Aristotle) Style as eloquence (Cicero) Style is the man (Buffon) Saying the right thing in the most effective way (Enkvist) Style as equivalence (Jakobson) Style as foregrounding (Leech and Short, Makarovsky) Style as deviation (Mukarovsky & Spitzer) Style as prominence (Halliday) Style as the selection of features partly determined by the demands of genre, form, theme, etc. (Traugott and Pratt)
Questions
– What is style and stylistics?
Why
– Why do we study stylistics?
How
– How do we make stylistic analysis?
Who is the founder of stylistics?
The founder of stylistics: Charles Bally, the student of Saussure, is the most influential linguist in the first generation in Geneva School which was founded by Saussure.
casual, and still others neutral in style. Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent Start, begin, commerce Kid, child, offspring Kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decease
Good morning, everyone!
Sharon QQ: 244011492 201007
English Stylistics: A New Coursdy stylistics
1. 2. 3. 4. Preview Review Remember Think
A neutral style
Examples (2)
Granddaughter:
– Take an egg, and make a perforation in the base
and a corresponding one in the apex. And then, apply the lips to the aperture, and by forcibly inhaling the breath, the shell is entirely discharged of its contents.
– Charles Bally (4 February 1865, Geneva – 10 April
1947) was a French linguist from the Geneva School. Bally is an expert in French lexicon and stylistics. His greatest contribution is his new idea about stylistics. – 他认为一般的语言风格和个别作家的风格是两回 前者出于常人说话时的需要,后者才是作家对语 事,前者出于常人说话时的需要 后者才是作家对语 前者出于常人说话时的需要 言的美学加工。 言的美学加工。他认为风格学应该研究感情在言 语中的表达和言语对感情的作用。 语中的表达和言语对感情的作用。
Key words: proper, individual
What does stylistics study?
文体学章节总结
文体学1~7章总结第一章关于文体学本章先阐释了现代文体学的概念，即：文体学是用语言学方法研究文体风格的一门学问。
它包括普通文体学和文学文体学。
我们学习的是普通文体学，学的是多种主要语言形式的文体特点。
为了更好地理解文体学，首先，得知道语言是什么？现代语言学的开端是索素尔，他认为语言就是一个符号系统。
而布卢姆菲尔德把语言看做是一个统一的结构，是使用语言习惯的集合。
还有人说语言是社会符号。
从哲学角度看，语言是产生于社会的语言活动。
接着说了言语事件的特点，即具有实物性，形式性和情境性。
根据言语事件的特点可知语言具有多样性，如古英语，现代英语，英式英语，美式英语，口头英语，书面英语等。
接着来了解一下语言的功能。
语言具有表达人们看法的概念功能，建立和保持人际关系的人际功能，根据上下文和当前情境选词义。
这三种功能表明语言必须适应人的交流需要。
讲了文，再来了解体，即风格。
风格就是个人或群体在一定情境下的语言习惯。
再来了解文体学的研究。
这得提到索素尔，他改变了自古以来历时研究文体学的风潮，他强调共时研究。
我们学习文体学重点在于学习语言多样性的三个特点，多样性的分类标准，语言描述的特点和主要的多样性功能。
第二章学习文体学的必要性1.学习文体学有助于养成得体的言语意识。
不同情境都符合他的不同语言风格，只有学好文体学，才能更好地交流。
2.学习文体学有助于提高对文学作品的理解和鉴赏水平，作者在进行文学创作时，得考虑选择合适的词句和构建文章的结构，学习文体学，我们才知道作者为何做出这样的选择，才能更好地理解作品。
说到这，得提一下由对文学作品的不同理解而产生的文学评论。
文学评论有三个步骤，即描述、理解,评论。
文学评论也是有价值的文学创作。
3.学习文体学有助于达到得体的翻译。
我们知道，语言具有多样性，所以在翻译是有时很难翻出原始意义，译者应该了解目标语言和被翻译语言的习惯用法，这样才能翻出既尊重原文意思又能让读者身临其境的好文章。
英语文体学知识重点
Chapter 1 Introduction· What is the English StylisticsIt is a science that deals with the research for a wide variety of the styles of written and oral English in English language.· What are language functionsa To deliver some infor to other peopleb To communicate with each other in society·How do we express ourselves in a proper waySeveral factors do work.a)Phoneticsb)Vocabularyc)Grammard)Some knowledge concerningEnglish stylistics·The correctness in using the language can not replace the appropriateness in language communication. WhyFour examples:a “ Hello ” and “ Hi ”b “ Assist me Assist me ” and “ Aid Aid ”c “That’s all right.” “That’s to say.” “It’s ..”d See next paged “ I am terribly sorry to hear that your husband has just died, but don’t let it upset you too much. You’re an attractive, young lady. I’m pretty sure it is very easy for you to find someone else soon. ” ·The effects of language expressions are sometimes related to somenon-linguistic factors.b Age ------ “ Cheers ” and “ Bye for now. ”c Vocation ------ “ Watch the birdie. ”d Received education ------ “ goto . ”e Social station ------ “ What prompted you to apply for this job ” ·Why should we learn and study English stylisticsa It will help us to express ourselves in English properly.b It will help us to know something about language features of a variety of English written styles.c It will help us to select a proper way for getting the best language effects and attaining our communicative purposes.d It will help us to go at literary criticism.e It will help us to do the translation work well.Chapter 2 Language Description & Stylistic Analysis·There are 4 phonetic means in English:1 stress2 Intonation3 pause4 voice quality.·Stress has several apparent stylistic and grammatical functions.1 The first function is for emphasis.2 The second function is to change the meaning or the part of speech of some words, or both.3 The third function is to differ some English words4 The fourth function is to show someone’s surprise, anger, fear, doubt, pleasure, etc..·Intonation can be employed to express people’s happiness, sadness, certainty, hesitation, depression, etc. There are 5 pitches in phonetics:1 The falling pitch is used to show the meaning of definiteness, certainty and completeness.2 The rising pitch is employed to show the meaning of indefiniteness, uncertainty and incompleteness.3 The fall-rise pitch is used to give people some encouragement or give people a warning.4 The rise-fall pitch is employed to give people a sincere praise or to show the feeling of shock.5 The level pitch is used to give account on something happened in the past.·Pause can be divided into two.a voiced pauseb silent pause ·Some useful rhetorical devices1. Period and inversion2. Parallelism and antithesis3. Climax and anti-climax4. RepetitionChapter 3 Oral Style and Written Style·Several occasions for using oral style:1. In literary masterpieces2. In everyday conversation3. In informal speeches·The differences between oral communication and written communication1. Use some gestures body language in oral communication2. Use a statement as a question in oral communication3. Use some pure oral words in oral communication· The comparison of language styles in oral style and in written style ·What can be used with oral style1 slangs2 vogue words3 abbreviations4 phrasal verbs5 idioms·What can be used with written style 1 Scientific English 2 Legal English 3 Religious English 4 Formal speech 5 Official documentsChapter 4 Formal Style & Informal Style·Five styles were advanced by Martin Joos in the book “ The Five Clocks ”1 Frozen Style: legal items, historic literature, the documents for international conferences, etc.2 Formal Style: This style is usually used to deliver some infor on formal occasions.3 Consultative Style: With this style people usually offer some background information. It is usually employed in business activities.4 Casual Style: People usually use it between friends, acquaintances, or insiders. Its main feature is that people usually employ ellipsis, slangs or cants with it.5 Intimate Style: It is usually used between husband and wife. Moreover it is employed in jargons sometimes. Chapter6 Societal Deviation in English· What is societal deviation in EnglishSocietal deviation is something about societal dialects.·Black English Vernacular: 土语urban black English·What are the reasons for you to know Black English Vernacular1It will help us to know thestatus que of AE.2 It will helpto read some novels in Americanliterature.Chapter 7 Time Deviation in English· Three stages of the development of English language1 The 1st stage is from 449 to 1100The verbs in Old English can be divided into two categories ------ one is strong verbs and another is weak verbs. The past tense forms of most of weak verbs are with the ending -cec, -ode, or -de after the original weak verbs.2 The 2nd stage is from 1100 to 1500 Middle English.At that time “ hw ” in Old English became “ wh ” and “ cw ” became “ qu ”.3 The 3rd stage is from 1500 to present time Modern English.There are two remarkable features in Modern English.1There are many loans in Modern English. from Japanese/fromFrench/from Latin/ from Chinese.2 There are some neologisms新词 in Modern English.·The application of English archaic words过时的词in modern times1 In legal English2 In religious English3 In English poetry4 In newspapers·Why use archaic words in modern times formal/rhyme/show-off Chapter 8 Common Practical Styles ·Three functions of English advertisements1 to attract readers’ attention2 to arose customer interest3 to erge customer to take actions as soon as possible.·Some features of English advertisements1 More simple sentences2 Less negative sentences ------ If people really want to express the negative meaning in advertisements, they may use “ nothing ” or “ no ” instead of “ not ”.3 Frequent use of present tense4 More and more imperative sentences5 Far more elliptical sentences 7 Some special adjectives8 Some newly-created words ·Journalistic English: Newsreport/news story·two categories of newspapers1 quality paper大报2 tabloid小报·Three requirements for news reports：Swift / objective / true·Some features of journalistic English1 Some journalistic jargons2 Some acronyms3 Some apocopation4 Some aphoeresis5 Some words with front and back clipping6 Some syncopations7 Some neologisms8 Some blends9 Some nouns are used as verbs to make the headlines vivid. Scientific English·What can be written with scientific English1 Scientific works and literature2 Academic theses3 Laboratory reports4 Product instructions·Some important features of scientific English1 Passive voice is high-frequently used in sentences.2 Present tense is quite often employed in sentences because scientific concepts and principles are usually described as truths.3 Long and complete sentences are often used to express meanings, ideas and concepts.4 There are some words which are from Latin.5 There is a simplicity in meaning for some words in scientific English.6 There are some useful prefixes and suffixes in scientific English. Chapter 9 Literary Style·The language features of English poetry1. The rhythm and the meter of English poetryRhythm is a regular succession of weak and strong stresses, accents, sounds, or movements in speech, music, poems, dancing, etc. ·How is the rhythm formed in English poemsStressed syllables and unstressed syllables which alternately appear in a stanza may produce rhythm in English poems. ·What is meter Meter is the measur. The English poetic rhythm is based on meter.构成英诗节奏的基础是韵律,即“格律”; ·How many meters are there in English poetic compositionThere are seven 1 iambus 抑扬格 2 trochee 扬抑格3 dactyl 扬抑抑格 4 anapaest 抑抑扬格 5 amphibrach 双行诗 6 spondee 7 purrhic ·What is stanzaIt consists of lines or verses. Simply speaking it is a poetic paragraph.·Some common forms of stanzas: 1 couplet 双行诗2 triplet 三行诗3 quatrain 4 cinquain 5sestet 6 septet 7 octet 8 Spenserian stanza 9 abba abba cde cde2 Shakespeare sonnet abab cdcd efef gg3 Spenserian sonnet abab bcbc cdcd ee·What is verse verse is the poetic sentence,line It is made up of one foot or more than one. Briefly speaking it is called a poetic sentence.·How to keep a rhyme in a poem 1 Keep an end rhyme It can be divided into four forms.1 The first form is to keep a single rhyme Sometimes it is called a masculine rhyme or a male rhyme.2 The second form is to keep a double rhyme Sometimes it is called afeminine rhyme or a female rhyme. . 3 The third form is to keep a triple rhyme.4 The fourth form is to keep an eye rhyme.2 Keep a head rhyme3 Keep an internal rhyme·Blank verse ：Unrhymed verse ·Three features of blank verses 1 They do not keep any rhymes, but they are the poems with some meter. 2 They can be long or short.3 Their feet in each line are not uniform.·Common Figures of Speech Used in English Poetry Use of simile andrepetition/head-rhymed alliteration /metapher/ parallelism/personification / speaking silence, dumb confession / paradox 矛盾修饰法/hyperbole,overstatement exaggeration/ metonymy 借代转喻 · Stylistic Features in Fiction Two points of viewTwo perspectives 1 Use singular or plural number of the third person ------ as a narrator or a story-teller to narrate some plots in a novel.Notes: a. Most of writers or novelists like to use this perspective.b. The effect of using this perspective is “ objective ”. 2 Use singular or plural number of the first person ------ as one of the characters to narrate some plots in a novel.Note:In this way it will make readers think that it is really a true story and there is no trace of make-up.·The dialogs in novels1 Some useful informal words2 Some common slangs·Direct and indirect speeches in novels1 Sometimes some novelists like to use direct speech in order to make a psychological description in narrating plots in a novel.2 Sometimes some novelists like to use indirect speech in order to make a thought presentation in narrating plots in a novel.·How to analyze a literary masterpiece1 Use a way of rhetorical analysis.2 Use a way of syntactical analysis. Chapter 10 Common Expressing Styles in English Passages· What is the ornate styleIn the ornate style, people like to use some modifiers, such as adjectives, adverbs, etc, and use some rhetorical devices, such as simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole, etc. In syntax, people like to use long sentences and some sentences with a complex structure or a parallel structure.·What is the plain styleIn the plain style, people prefer to use short sentences. People rarely use big words. People don’t like to use many modifiers. As for syntax, people prefer to use compound sentences.·Which style is better Simply speaking, it depends. It depends on different occasions.·What is the involved style In this style, people usually employ some detailed descriptive device to express something. They often use some specific words for their descriptions.·What is the terse styleIn this style, people usually use brief words and simple-structured sentences which have some profound implied meanings.·Relationship between Irony and humor:Irony is a language means while humor is an effect.。
文体学概述
Chapter One: Brief Introduction to StylisticsPart 1: What is Stylistics about?1.A Glance at StyleSample 1:The Year's at the Spring ! 一年之计在于春～Robert Browning❖The year's at the spring 正值一年之春，❖And day's at the morn; 又逢一日之晨；❖Morning's at seven; 晨光走到了七点；❖The hill-side's dew-pearled; 山腰挂着露珠；❖The lark's on the wing; 云雀展翅高飞；❖The snail's on the thorn: 蜗牛爬上了荆棘:❖God's in his Heaven -- 上帝在自己的天堂里——❖All's right with the world! 尘世间一派井然！Sample 2:The Regulation is enacted in accordance with pertinent laws and regulations and in light of the concrete conditions of this Municipality, with the purpose of strengthening the administration of cityscape and environmental sanitation, creating and maintaining a clean, beautiful cityscape and environment, protecting people's health, promoting economic growth, civilization and progress of society.为了加强市容和环境卫生的管理，保持干净美观的市容环境，保护人民群众的健康，推动经济发展和社会文明进步，根据相关法规和本市的具体情况特此制定本规定。
chapter 1 Introduction (to style)
Mark Twain
And he grew up and married, and raised a large family, and brained them all with an axe one night, and got wealthy by all manner of cheating and rascality; and now he is the infernalist wickedest scoundrel in his native village, and is universally respected, and belongs to the Legislature. So you see there never was a bad James in the Sunday-school books that had such a streak of luck as this sinful Jim with the charmed life. (The Story Of The Bad Little Boy)
Charles Dickens
那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代； 那是智慧的年头，那是愚昧的年头；那是信 仰的时期，那是怀疑的时期；那是光明的季 节，那是黑暗的季节；那是希望的春天，那 是失望的冬天；我们全都在直奔天堂，我们 全都在直奔相反的方向。
Mark Twain
Thus perished the good little boy who did the best he could, but didn't come out according to the books. Every boy who ever did as he did prospered except him. His case is truly remarkable. It will probably never be accounted for. (The Story Of The Good Little Boy)
文体学
英语文体学期中考试姓名：张燕箐班级：08级英语四班学号：P081011960文体学1-7章概述第一章有关文体学什么文体学？简单来说，文体学是一门研究语言运用的方法的学科；它是用来研究运用语言的风格。
现代文体学有两个分支：普通文体学与文学文体学。
普通文体学研究的是各种语言运用的普遍特征，而文学文体学则是对各种文学作品所特有的特征的研究。
但是，这两种文体学所研究的对象还存在一些共同之处。
见下表：在《英语文体学教程》这一书中，对文体学的研究，主要是指普通文体学。
而要解释什么是普通文体学就得知道什么是语言，语言的变体有哪些？什么是文体？文体学的特征是什么？有学者认为语言是一种标志，是工具。
语言经常会与编码作比，是一种标志或信号系统用来传递信息。
人们完成一件事情不仅要通过肢体语言来表达而且还有口头语言表达，这样就有了语言行为与语言事件。
说到文体学当然要提“文体”二字，文体（或文风）可以被认为是个人或群体在各种社会社交环境中运用语言的多样化。
简而言之，就是文学风格。
比如：“莎士比亚风格”、“米尔顿风格”等。
文体学的重点就在于研究语言的功能。
第二章学习文体学的必要性学习文体学有有助于更好的运用英语。
因此，对于外语学习者，有必要了解学习文体学的必要性：1．文体学帮你在交谈中建立一种恰如其分的感觉。
也就是说，懂得在适当的场合说适当的话。
比如你是一位总经理，在和一个很好的朋友喝酒时，你会说：“来，干了”！但是如果在比较正式的场合，那就得说：“我代表公司向全体员工表示感谢，感谢大家……为了公司今后的发展，干杯！”2．学习文体学能提高对文学作品的理解能力和欣赏水平。
对文学作品的评价有三个步骤：描述→口译→评估。
描述占第一位，由此看来，在文学创作中，最关键的是描述。
3．学习文体学能帮你更好的进行翻译工作。
文体学告诉我们英语的各种变体以及其功能、特点，因此，了解文体学能使我们的翻译更加贴合实际，符合原文思想。
比如“油漆未干”翻译成对应的英语应该是“Wet Paint”而不是“The paint is not dry”. 在翻译过程中，应当注意所翻译作品的时代以及其语言风格，是古语还是现代语言，要符合语境，比如翻译一篇老旧文学作品，要尽量达到其“古”的意味，才能让读者更大限度的领会其思想。
文体学课件Chapter1分析
of language on which most linguists agree.
And in which aspects of language does stylistics focus on?
The language of a participant in a social activity reflects his social characteristics (such as his status, ethnic group, age and sex), his awareness of the various factors of a social situation, etc.
English Stylistics: A New Course Book
Instructed by Zhuying
Course related Questions
Questions
Who
– Who is the founder of stylistics?
What
– What does stylistics study? – What is style and stylistics?
Why
– Why do we study stylistics?
How
– How do we make stylistic analysis?
Who is the founder of stylistics?
The founder of stylistics: Charles Bally, the student of Saussure, is the most influential linguist in the first generation in Geneva School which was founded by Saussure.
文体学总结
文体学第一章文体学的范围什么是文体学？文体学就是一门教我们怎么使用语言，怎么应用不同风格的语言的一门学科。
文体学具体指的是文体特征，指适用于现代语言学的概念以及其技巧的，学习语言文体使用的一门学科，括普通文体学和文学文体学。
什么是语言，不同的人对语言的定义，时间的发展，语言的定义在不断的变化完善。
语言本质上是一种社会活动。
哲学观认为，语言系统是语言在社会上的作用、活动。
语码与语言相比较。
语码通常指一系列的标志符号，象征着信息的传递。
单位量小的信息是指发话人一系列要表达的意思转化成声音并让受话人接收到这一系列信息的过程。
演讲方面语言的使用。
语言在人类社会活动中不断的被使用，在演讲中由三个坏境因素决定：活动的规范性、大小、类型。
语言的变体和功能：语言的使用方式受使用场合的的影响，不同的场合必须使用不同的语言。
不同的场景，不同的人，不同的时间，不同的地点，不同的媒体，不同的社会坏境使用不同的的语言。
语言有今古，有书写体和口语，有概念功能与指称功能之分(一个为说话表达人服务，一个为书写真实世界而服务)。
文体是区分不同语言习惯的关键，每个人都会有自己的语言风格。
例如“莎士比风格”。
文体就是一个人的语言习惯和一个群体语言坏境。
文体的学习：文体学被有的人称为文体，文体学的学习在西方很早开始就出现了。
而文体学作为一个独立的语言规范需要我们对他有充分的了解，文体学学的学习使得文体更趋于规范化，理论化，使语言学的描述更加严密规范。
文体学的学习是现代学的根本；与文学息息相关；她是修辞学的继续和发展；他用新的形象接近批判性文学并为之提供一个支撑点。
第二章学习文体学的必要文体学的学习帮助我们培养一个正确的语感。
语言不是统一性质的现象，他是一个广泛的系列。
只有在不同的情况下使用不同的正确的语言人们才能正常的交流。
因此，我们就有必要去培养一个很好的语感，使得我们在交流中表达的更容易更让别人听得舒服。
文体学的学习使得理解和欣赏的文学工作变得更简单容易。
英语文体学教程
Chapter11, what is style in your opinion according to what we have studied in this chapter?Anwser1 , from the perspective of the content, the events and activities described ,style is saying different things in different ways ;from the perspective of the ways of expression used ,styled is same thing in different ways; from the perspective of the users of language ,style is different speakers using language in different ways; and from the perspective of the text ,style is the functions of texts for different purposes.Anwser2, the definition of style is the concept of style as choice .this definition can have at least too interpretations .one is that first we have a pre-existing thought ,and then we choice the appropriate type of expression to express it in language. The chosen expression is the style .another is that the choice refers to the choice of meaning. The choice of language is at the same time a choice of meaning and a choice of style .2,what is the significance of studying the style of language in learning and teaching English?Anwser, the answer is that if we want to use language appropriately in different situations , we need to study style .as foreign language learners, if we disregard the rules of using what variety of language in what occasion , or fail to obey them through ignorance , language can become instead a barrier to successful communication . Therefore its necessary to have a clear awareness of how language should be used in different types of situations especially in unfamiliar situations.3, what factors can result in differences in style ?Answer , 1, the different types of vocabulary create different images of the events in the re ader’s mind, so they can result in different styles.2,people living in different periods of time in history will also speak differently ,and that will result in a different style.Chapter21, explain the following terms1),foregrounding: the stylistically significant features have to be prominent and motivated ,that is ,foregrounded.2),incongruity: the linguistic features depart from the normal use of language ,breaking the rules grammar ,spelling ,pronunciation.3)deflection : the linguistic features don’t depart from the established grammatical, lexical and logical rules and principles ,but have an unexpected high frequency of occurrence.4),field; its concerned with what is happening ,including the subject matter,the events happenings,going-ons, the content ,etc5)tenor: its concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning ----the relationship between the speaker and the listener ,their relative status,their attitude,and their role relations .6)mode: its concerned with how the interaction is conducted ,that is whether it is written or spoken ,or whether it is expressed by phonic substance or graphic substance.2,question for discussion2)in rhetorical series,the number of items can influence the stylistic effect.try to analyze the causes on the basis of social culture.Answer :different numbers of words can produce different stylistic effects in the appropriate contexts. Two items express assertion ,that is ,it is just this ,not that .In appropriate situations three items can produce ethic ,persuasive, and representative effect. Four or more items in a seriesstress a large number of the concrete things ,and these can produce an imagery in the mind of the reader that the large amount of things constitutes a significant situation in which certain aspect are highlighted. Another function of the rhetorical series is to use concrete items to highlight abstract concepts so that the abstract concept can be expressed in concrete ,lively and vivid way to enhance the aesthetic value of language.3)what factors affect the writer’s selection of words and styleAnswer : five criteria for the selection of words :whether they are familiar or not familiar, whether they are concrete or abstract, whether they are single or more ,whether they are short and simple. Or long. Whether they are Anglo –saxon words or latin words .field ,tenor ,mode affect the writer’s selection of style.4)what is the criterion used to classify wordsAnswer :we can use more systematic way to classify word according to register and dialect .register:field ,tenor , mode .dialect: regional dialect,such as London dialect;social dialect such as dialect of age, race,etc.temporal dialect such as od English .5)through what channels can words be used to achieve transferred meaning?Answer :simile :x is like Y, eg as busy as bee. Metaphor: X is Y ,eg he is a pig. Synecdoche eg many hands represent the people who work with their hands . Metonymy eg purse represent money.Chapter31,explain the following terms1),chiasmus:chiasmus is formed by inverting the word order of the second part of a parallel structure,so it forms a kind of antithetical structure. Eg:let us never negotiate out of fear,but let us never fear to negotiate.2)antistrophe: it is the repetition of the same items but in inverted order ,eg:what’s polly to me,or me to polly?3)epizeuxis:it is a continuous repetition for high lighting a particular feature.4)ploce: the repetition is not continuous , but intermittent or dispersed in the text.5)loose sentence: put the major idea first and than the illustration .such a sentence is easy to grasp .6)periodic sentence:a periodic sentence can be used to create suspense,or expectation, thus drawing the listener’s attention to the end of the sentence.it can be used to produce humorous and emphatic effect .2,question for discussion1),there are many types of syntactic deflection ,but they have one thing in common :recurrence of structures. How is syntactic deflection classified?Answer :there are two type of syntactic deflection :the unexpected high frequency of occurrence of a certain type of sentence; and the overregular occurrence of a particular pattern .2)the high frequency of occurrence of long and short sentence can create stylistic effect .apart from the difference in expressive meanings ,what are other characteristics of the two types of sentences?Answer : long sentences are good to provide the detailed descriptions ,and are good to reveal the mental activities of the speaker .so they are used to produce a vivid, rich, exuberant, luxuriousstyle. Short sentence：can produce direct ,terse ,concise ,clear effect or continuous ,compact ,swift effect ,so that it creates certain atmosphere , and leave a deep impression on the listeners.3) why do writers often violate the rule of grammar? What do we cal this violation?Answer: we call this violation syntactic incongruity .the violation of the grammatical rules can be used to produce certain stylistic effects. The so-called ungrammatical sentences are used to represent the different varieties of language according to register and dialect. In literary works, dialectical and personal features of speech are often used to depict the personality of the characters. In poetry, the poet often uses deviant grammatical structures to achieve special effects, makes lines terse and concise, to make it rich in meaning.4)what is the function of rhetorical questions?Answer: A rhetorical question is to use the form of a question in order to express a strong emotion or to emphasize a particular aspect. The function of inverted sentence is to make a declarative sentence more powerful, to attract the listener’s attention, or to induce others’ sympathy. Arranged in parallelism, rhetorical questions can express strong emotions and increase the persuasive power.A rhetorical question can also introduce the topic of the text.5) In what ways can we use inverted sentences to achieve emphatic effect?Answer: to change the normal word order can be used to produce some emphatic effect. What is put to the initial part of the sentence is usually the focus of information of the clause and also the theme of he clause. So it is highlighted.Chapter41 explain the following terms1)Synaesthesia: it refers to the fact that sounds s are attributed with certain values or estheticfeatures. It is very casual, and supported by situational features and meaning.2)Alliteration: refers to the repetition of the initial sound usually a consonant, or a vowel at firstposition, in two or more words that occur close together.3)Assonance: refers to the use of the same or related vowel sounds in successive words. It cancreate harmonious effect.4)Consonance: refers to the repetition of the last consonants of the stresses words at the end ofthe lines.2 questions for discussion1)What are the characteristic of spoken language and written language respectively?Answer: spoken language: 1 it can directly be accompanied by other non-linguistic means as the aid; 2 it is generally speaking not as formal as written language; 3 it permits errors in the process of production; 4 it uses a particular grammar, a grammar characteristics of spoken language. 5 homophones can be used for special stylistic effects, such as pun; 6 some implications are best represented by special sound features; 7 sound feature can represent the feature of regional dialect or social dialect.Written language:1 as written language communication is usually not a direct one, but is delayed in time and at different places, the writer generally has time to get well prepared and revise the text before he sends it out to the reader;2 as space is limited, it has special grammatical features so as to put more meaning in it .there are many nominalizations to make sentences into groups;3 written language is often used in a more formal situation; 4 as time is enough, it is usually writtenin a more detailed and logical way;5 as written language is more purposeful, and for a single specific goal, it is usually more constant and developed around a single subject.2)How many sound patterns do we have? What special stylistic effects can be achieved by them? Answer: these sound patterns include alliteration which can create harmony, connection and achieve special stylistic effects, assonance which can create harmonious effect, and consonance 3)What factors can influence graphological prominence? .Answer: there are three distinctive factors that can produce graphological prominence: marking, spacing and sequence. Marking refers to the use of written symbols to convey information; space is spacing arrangement departing from this normal way of spacing can be used to achieve stylistic effects.4 In modern English, punctuation marks are patterned and standardized. How can we use punctuation marks for special stylistic purpose?Answer: period typically occurs at the end of a declarative sentence. If period occurs in unexpected high frequency of occurrence, it often means that the text mainly functions to provide information; comma is used to mark the unit larger than a word, however, in Charles Dickens’ Dombey and Son, comma is used to indicate syllables; exclamation marks can be used to carry emotional coloring, a mark of expressing special feelings; parentheses are used for further explanation; the ellipsis of punctuation marks produces an illogical and non-sequential image. Chapter71 explain the following terms1）Guide: guide is the further explanation of the headline, it consists of six elements; location, character, event, mode, time, and cause.2）Nominalization: refers to a grammatical phenomenon in which the meaning which is normally expressed by a clause is here expressed by a phrase, so clause nominalization is normal. It is contracted.3）The highlighting method: from the productive point of view, the columnist can publish the whole story, or he can cut off some parts from the end. He can even cut off the main body.4）Meaning contraction: using the smallest form to get the most meaning.5）Journalese words: as new report requires the speaker to use the least form to get the most meaning, and it has to be fresh and attractive, so the words in news report is short and new.2 questions for discussion1) What are semantic features of news report?Answer:1 In terms of ideational meaning, apart from the semantic field of news report, it covers virtually all areas of meaning systems ;2 in terms of interpersonal meaning, it stresses objectivity;3 in terms of textual meaning, it has the feature of meaning contraction.3) Most of the headlines are elliptical sentences. Tell in what way ellipsis is best achieve in news report.Answer: most of the headlines are elliptical sentences. What is omitted is: (a) subject-predicate (b) predicate (c) link verb or auxiliary verb4) How is meaning contraction of news report embodied in grammar?Answer: one feature of news report is meaning contraction, that is using the smallest form to get the most meaning .its grammatical feature are as follows:(1) the nominalization of the processes (2)big noun phrases and complex modifications (3)as some of the pre-modifiers come from a separate clause, it is highly contracted .5）The concreteness contraction of news report is in contradiction to meaning contraction. Tell how this contradiction is revolved in news report.Answer: besides its authenticity and objectivity, news report should also emphasize concreteness and detailedness. Therefore, the writer often gives background information and details by using parenthesis. By doing so, the writer can provide concrete and detailed information and save space as well.6）What graphological means are used in news report? Analyze what effects are achieved by graphological means.Answer: grphological means are made in the typesetting, for example, headlines can be arranged in such ways: 1 flush-left(it is made into a square) 2dropped-line(the length of the line is the same, but dropped in a bit each time) 3 short line followed by a long tome 4 along line followed by a short line 5 concave form 6 convex form . They can increase esthetic value and become more attractive.7）What are lexical features of news report? Why are many nonce words used in news report? Answer: lexical feature: 1 short and new-fashioned such a “crisis” in “the UN faces crisis of credibility”. 2 short journalese phrase such as “key issue” in “jobless will be the key issue in 1993”. 3nonce words, often blends such as Euromarket=European market.8）Why is there so much use of direct speech in news report?Answer: the use of direct speech can enhance the credibility of news report. The directly quoted speech can be regarded as basis of facts.9）What prominent devices are used in headlines in news report?Answer: alliteration allusion suspense etc.Chapter61Explain the following terms1）time non-fluency :pauses in inappropriate positions within a phrase or groups position ,the use of um or er to delay the time ,the repetition of some expressions ,such as be said be said be said.,2）Quality non-fluency: often the speaker cannot find the appropriate words to express himself, and he is striving for words, so he uses many inexact expressions and even wrong expressions or wrong pronunciations to express himself.3） Adjacency pair: most of the sentences are declarative and interrogative sentences as they are mostly made up of questions and answers.4） Slot filling words: slot filling words are used to fill in the pauses when the speaker strives for meaning as words, or when he or she strives to be politeness or lessen the degree of imprudence.2 question for discussion1）What are the characteristics of conversation from the perspective of semantics, grammar, vocabulary and phonology?Answer :semantic features:(1)the inexplicitness of meaning (2)the randomness of subject matter, and a general lack of planning (3)the lack of fluency Grammatical features :(1)sentence complexity (2)verbal phrases(3)nominal phrases(4)the types of sentences (5)quoted elements. Lexical feature:(1)most of the words are short and simple Anglo-Saxon ones, (2)the choice of words is limited in scope or range (3)slang and colloquial words, taboo words ,exclamatory words are frequently used (4)some slot filling words ,such as you know ,I mean,etc.(5)use exaggerated words and expressions. Phonological features :(1)use more contractions for the unimportant information (2)the often try to express themselves in spite of the fact that the other is speaking (3)there are many emphatic ways of speech ,such as stress .2）How do you account for the inexplicitness of language in daily conversation?Answer: the inexplicitness of meanings manifested in the following aspects: (1)lots of exophoric expression such as “this “is the tendency (2)there ar e missing links between the utterances(3) a lot of background information missing.(4)many inexact expressions using general words for particular concepts(5)many incomplete expressions.3）What are the features spontaneous commentary from the perspective of semantics, grammar, vocabulary and phonology?Answer: from the perspective of semantic features, if the listeners could also see the event while the commentary is delivered, there will be a lot of meaning implied or simply presupposed; but in a commentary without visual support on the part of the listeners, the commentator has to provide all the necessary information. In terms of syntactic structure, the sentences and the clauses are usually short as the commentator has no time to give detailed description of the event, and the sentences contain fewer words than usual. From the perspective of lexical features, the words are mostly simple in structure, they are short and simple; they are mostly composed of verbs, and proper names; there might be specialized terms depending on the subject matter of the commentary. From the perspective of phonological features, it is very fast and fluent, but he has to pronounce every word clearly and loudly.4）What are the features of text structure of public speech?Answer: It consist of the following element :(1)a short introduction to the main issue or issues concerned (2)the declaration of one’s attitude and position in the matter (3)the listin g, reasoning, and explaining (4)conclusion5）How is it that in public speech there is much use of noun phrases with post modification? Answer: there are few pre-modifiers, but more post-modifiers such as “of phrase” and “which clauses” to give detailed and accurate description.Chapter81 explain the following termsLearned words: learned words are words that borrowed from Latin, Greek and French.Clichés: are words or expressions which have lost their originality or effectiveness because they have been used too often.Semantic features: correctness and completeness; conciseness and clearness; consideration and courtesy.Grammatical features: sentences structure; uses of voices; uses of affirmative sentences; inverted sentencesLexical features: concrete and natural words; technical terms and abbreviations; brief and common word s; avoid clichés (except business contracts)3 questions for discussion1）Why should business English be correct and complete?Answer: the content of business English should be correct and completely. First, the conveyed information should be correct; sometimes a small mistake would cause a great loss in a deal and even affect business relations between two parties. Second, the conveyed information should be complete. For example, if we order some commodities, we should state names of commodities, delivery dates, consignees, methods of payment, etc.2）In business English sometimes active voice is used, and sometimes passive voice is preferred. Point out what stylistic features can be achieved through using voices.Answer: In business English, both active voice and passive voice can be used, but there is a tendency towards preference of active voice in today’s business communication. Active voice is shorter in form and economic in words compared with passive voice. Thus active voice is more effective in stylistic effect than passive voice; besides, active voice can make style more familiar and less formal. But in some cases, passive voice is necessary. When we discuss something negative, we should avoid blaming the other party directly, in addition, passive voice can make business English style more formal, and the conveyed information more objective.3）Why should business letters be written in a way of consideration and courtesy?Answer: In business communication, in order to make it more efficient, we should be considerate of others and polite to others. “You- Atti tude”is very important principle in business communication, that is, we should think ourselves back into the shoes of others so as to cooperate sincerely. 4）The use of technical terms and abbreviations is one stylistic feature of business English. State the reason of this phenomenon.Answer: using technical terms and abbreviations can avoid long and tedious explanation, which is one lexical feature of business English. Such as L/C----letter of credit5）Why should we avoid clichés in business English?Answer: clichés are words or expressions which have lost their originality or effectiveness because they have been used too often. In old-fashioned business English there are a large number of clichés, which should be avoid in present-day business communication.Chapter91, explain the following terms2) Redundancy: in order to avoid opaqueness and ambiguity, it has express clearly what everyone knows and takes for granted. This makes the legal language redundant clumsy and hard to understand.3) Common words: many of the legal words come from ordinary language with the common core features especially those high-frequency words, such as prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.4) specialized words: specialized words are necessary for two important aspects of legal language. The first is that for the field of law itself, and the second is that for many non-legal field concerned with legal affairs. There are two sources of specialized legal words: common words endowed with legal meanings and archaic words.2, question for discussion1)Why is legal English syntactically complex?Answer: syntactic Complexity: as its main function is to ensure preciseness and accuracy and block any leakage, the draftsmen of legal documents have to be very carful and scrupulous, and the legal texts have to be able to stand the text of time .therefore legal language is rich in modifications, circumlocutions, and complex logic relations.2）Legal English is very conservative in form. Explain it from a historical perspective.Answer: conservativeness: as the legal language is produced by careful phrasing and tested over a long time, nobody dares to alter the structure of legal English, so that its structures become old-fashioned and archaic. The representative legal language in such a way is English legal language.3) What is the reason that there are many legal words of French source?Answer: because after the Norman Conquest, French because the official language used for all state affairs including law in Great Britain. That is why many French loan words were found in law afterwards.4) What are the lexical features of legal English?Answer: legal vocabulary mainly comes from French. (2) Legal words can be divided into following three types: 1, common words2, specialized words3, Multi-register words.。
[英语学习]文体学1
• •
• Implication: (Assumptions) • A.Linguistics should be most helpful in analyzing and interpreting literary texts. • B) literature is a type of communicative discourse.
• The Purposes for study of stylistics • To appreciate the English literature works • To master some general knowledge about variations of English • To improve English level • To construct a critical view towards matter • To build a new way of thinking
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
• 1 Definition of Stylistics • Stylistics=style+ linguistics • STYLE: Chapter Two • Linguistics: the study of language in which theories on languages have been fully investigated • Take some language theories as example • Cooperative principles • Politeness principles • Ambiguity of languages
• Implication: stylistic features do not occur randomly in it but form patterns. And stylisticians can account for literary texts not just intrasententially but also intersententially, not only in terms of linguistic facts and theory but also in terms of sociolinguistic facts and theory.
文体学
◆第一章文体学的研究对象文体学是研究语言运用方式和体裁的科学，现代文体学可以分为普通文体和文学文体，下面又可细分为一般特点，语体风格和文学文本风格。
说到文体学，是研究语言的科学，就不得不提到什么是语言。
现代语言学家把语言大体定义为一套符号的集合，是用来通过对话、讨论、演讲等方式进行交流的，这些交流方式又被称之为言语行为，而产生语言的行为则称之为言语事件。
言语事件在现代语言学上可分为三个方面：实质性言语事件、正式言语事件和场合性言语事件。
在不同的环境与状态下应该使用不同的语言形式。
这种不同的语言形式就称之为语言的变体。
在这些语言变体语言所起的作用就叫做语言的功能。
语言的功能又可分为概念性功能、社交性功能和文本性功能。
不同形式的语言能产生不同的语言功能。
接下来将到问题。
问题可以有许多种不同的解释，但是在严格意义上来说，文体学应该被定义为：在固定场合个人或群体使用的语言形式或语言习惯。
本书研究的对象，同时也是现代文体学研究的对象，就是区分与演变体的准则，以及对主要与演变体的语言特征和功能方面的描述和解释。
◆第二章学习文体学的必要性1、学习文体学，我们可以逐渐获得一种正确的意识，也就是说我们能够了解在什么场合应当使用何种文体才不至于显得唐突或是没有语言修养。
例如，能在豪华的场合、普通场合、轻松休闲的场合或多用俚语的场合得体的使用语言，能够使你听起来更好的融入周围的环境。
2、文体学研究让我们能更深刻的理解与欣赏文学作品。
文学批评有三个阶段：描述→解释→评价。
文体学分析，由于他与语言描述语言解释之间的紧密关系，使它在文学批评中占有重要地位。
在评价一篇文学作品时，我们应该从音韵学/语相学、词汇语法学和语义学层面进行文体学分析。
3、文体学研究可以使我们更快的达到翻译中的适应性。
由于语言是根据不同的场景有不同的内涵和功能的，所以在翻译中仅仅根据语言的字面意义翻译出来的成果往往是差强人意的。
翻以前必须先分析文本的整体风格，包括文本的遣词风格是科技术语性质的、抽象风格的、简单的还是多用俚语的；包括句子的风格是简单的还是复杂的，是多使用问句还是循规蹈矩的；包括修辞手法的类型；或者是文本的整体基调是向上的还是消沉的，等等。