英语语言学概论 Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学)
{z}: /s/: after voiceless consonants except /s/, / /, and / /, books, maps streets; /z/ after vowels and voiced consonants except /z/, / /, / /.bags, cars keys /iz/ after /s/, /z/, / /, / /, / /, / /. sizes, bridges bosses, matches
Semantically:root(词根 and affix 词根) 词根 affix( 词缀): prefix(前缀 suffix(后缀 ; 前缀), 后缀) 词缀 前缀 后缀 derivational affixes(派生词缀 and 派生词缀) 派生词缀 inflectional affixes(屈折词缀 屈折词缀) 屈折词缀 Structurally: free morphemes(自由词素 自由词素, 自由词素 即自由词根) and bound morphemes(粘 即自由词根 粘 着词素) 着词素
Affixes(词缀 those that lexically 词缀): 词缀 depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words. Interralation: all free morphemes(like bird) are roots but not all roots are free morphemes. (like spect). All affixes are bound morphemes but not all bound morphemes are affixes (like ceive)
Classification of morphemes
Free morphemes: those that can exist as individual words: the , to for cap shoe Lexical morphemes: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs. Open class, large part of vocabulary 实词 Functional morphemes: prepositions, conjunctions, articles, pronouns. Closed class. 虚词
5.1 what is morphology
Morphology studies the internal structures(内部结构 of words and word 内部结构) 内部结构 formation rules. It divided into two fields:inflectional morphology(屈折词法 屈折词法) 屈折词法 and derivational/lexical morphology(派 派 生词法). 生词法 It studies the different categories of morphemes( bound, free, derivational and inflectional) morphological rules
5.2 morpheme(词素,语素)
Morpheme is a minimal meaningful grammatical unit in a language. 1 minimal: smallest,it can not further be divided. {un}, {bird} but not blackboard=black+board disagree=dis +agree 2 meaningful: can not be further divided without destroying its meaning cap+tain, man+age==manage
{d}: /t/ after voiceless consonants except /t/; hoped, looked, stopped, finished /d/ after vowels and voiced consonants except /d/; loved, lived, realized /id/ after /t/ and /d/. Visited, stated, headed
empty morph and zero morph
empty morph: a morph whcu has form but no meaning. children=child+r+en oxen=ox+en zero morph: a morph which has meaning but no form. They work in Nanjing. work=work+/ / sheep(plural)=sheep+/ /
3, grammatical: not only lexical morphemes like {bird, leg, table},but also grammatical ones, like{to ,for, -s, ed, -er, the a an} international=inter+nation+al tourists=tour+ist+s disagreements=dis+agree+ment+s
affixes
Position: prefixes, suffixes and inffixes(中缀) dislike, disagree, discourage; movement, encouragement spokesman, townspeople Function: affixes can be divided into: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes
IC analysis
Morphemic analysis: to analyse the number of morphemes and the relationships between the morphemes. linear order of morphemes: the horizontal(水平 order or the sequential 水平) 水平 characteristics of morphemes in a word: meanings=mean+ing+s disagreements=dis+agree+ment+s
Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学, 词法学)
Internal structures of words and rules of word formation
careful wonderful successful beautiful widen deepen shorten fasten sharpen Impossible, incorrect, improper, illegal, report, import export transport support porter respect inspect expect suspect prospect boys girls toys books tables bottles working, thinking speaking, cutting, hitting the, to,for,bird, leg, air, captain. suffixes,prefixes,roots,inflectional suffixes,free root
Bound morphemes(粘着词素 those 粘着词素): 粘着词素 that can not occur alone as separate words.-ful, -less, re- de, tele-vis-ion, un-happy Roots(词根 词根),the most important part of 词根 a word that carries the principal meaning: receive, conceive, deceive, Respect, expect, suspect, diction, contradiction bird leg hand
Inflectional affixes: indicate grammatical function, do not produce new words or cause a change in grammatical class. Number, gender, tense, aspect, case and degree (8个:-s,-s,’s, -ing, -ed,-en,-er,est P60) Derivational affixes: produce new words, some change grammatical classes of words. dis,un-,re-,in-, -ly,-y, ful, -er, ment, tion, (P 61)
root: the basic part of a word that can not be further analysed without total loss of its identity base: the form that a derivational affix is attached, disagree+ment=disagreemen stem: the form that an inflectional affix is attached: reopen+ing=reopening. eat+ing=eating(stem) eat+able=eatable(base) eat+er=eater
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter 5
The naming theory
Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, words are just names or labels for things. Limitations: 1) It‘s applicable to nouns only; 2) Even within the category of nouns, there are still some nouns can not be named by physical objects.
Semantic triangle or triangle of significance (语义三角或意义三角)
THOUGHT/ REFERENCE (ept)
SYMBOL/ FORM…….. REFERENT (所指)
Linguistic element (words, phrases)
grammatical meaning (语法意义): grammaticality (语法性), which is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. semantic meaning (语义意义): is governed by rules called selectional restrictions (选择 限制), i. e. , constraints on what lexical items can go with what others (即对词汇项搭
X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.) X 蕴含 Y (Y是 X的一个含义) e.g. X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe. ―He has been to France‖ entails ―He has been to Europe‖ 或者 “He has been to Europe‖ is entailed by ―He has been to France‖. If X is true, Y is necessarily true. If X is false, Y may be true or false. 如果X为真,那么Y必定为假，如果X为假, 那么Y可 能为真也可能为假.
英语语言学名词解释最终版
英语语言学名词解释最终版现代语言学1 language: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1 interlanguage:The type of language produced by nonnative speakers in the process of learning a second language or foreign language.1 Linguistics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology 形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax 句型: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics语义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worr ied.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragma tics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme音素: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone同位音: The different phones which can representa phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.10 intonation朗诵: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme词素: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must becombined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as theideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy 同义词: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy一词多义: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation betweena more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics词的活用: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentencein a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act:言内行为A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act:言后行为A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in whicha child has been brought up.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.。
morphology 词态学
To convey meaning, sounds are combined into words. However, words are not the smallest unit of meaning The smallest meaning-bearing unit of language is called morpheme（词素）. A morpheme cannot be divided without drastically altering or destroying its meaning. Morphology is the study of the meaning-bearing unit of word (morphemes)and the governing rules
How about the function words like the and of?
Is “aren’t” one word or two?
In writing, word boundaries are usually recognized by spaces between words
What about in speeches?
Noun + -ful: Adjective + -ly: Verb + -ion: Verb + er / or: 动词 + 者:
How Do Sounds and Syllables Make up Words?
------ Morphology
5.1 The definition of the term “word”
Word is “the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing”
语言学概论名词解释
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Language is a means of verbal communication.)Arbitrariness 任意性There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.( refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.) Duality 二层性is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity (productivity) 创造性Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.)Displacement 移位性Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.( means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.)Linguistics 语言学is the scientific study of language.Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole. Competence 语言能力the ideal user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language.Performance 语言运用the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.Chapter 2Phonetics 语音学(the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Phonology 音系学is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Coarticulation 协同发音When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called coarticulation.(When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call this process coarticulation.) Broad Transcription 宽式音标the transcription with letter-symbols only.Narrow transcription 窄式音标the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 读音符号.Phone 音素A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme 音位A phoneme is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in language which can distinguish two words.Allophone 音位变体the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Assimilation 同化is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Syllable 音节A syllable is composed of a compulsory nucleus(peak), a non-compulsory onset and a non-compulsory coda.Stress 重音refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Intonation 语调involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varyingChapter 3Morpheme 词素is the smallest meaning minimal meaningful units in a language. (Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.)Morphology 形态学studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Free morphemes 自由音素those that may occur alone, that is those which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes 黏着音素those must appear with at least another morpheme, that is, they cannot stand alone.Root 词根is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.Affixes 词缀forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. (is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.Stem 词干is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case. It will not change the grammatical class of the stem to which it is attached.Word formation refers to the process of how words are formed.Compounding 复合法the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.(The term compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.)Derivation (affixation) 派生法the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems. ConversionChapter 4Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Syntax is the study of the formation of sentences.Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrence 同现关系.Positional relation (word order) 位置关系refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. The sequential arrangement of words can either be well-formed or ill-formed (ungrammatical or nonsensical).Relations of substitutability 可替换关系Firstly, it refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly, it refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.Grammatical construction/construct 语法结构can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. - Constituents are the components within one sentence (a term used for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger unit).Immediate constituents 直接成分are constituents immediately, or directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence, a word group or even a word (which can be further analyzed into morphemes).Endocentric construction 向心结构is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head.Exocentric construction 离心结构refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head.- Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.- Object Traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of an action (the agent), then object m ay refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of the action (the patient), and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.PS rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.Chapter 5Semantics is the study of meaning, or more specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Referential theory 指称论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for, is known as the referential theory.- Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.Chapter 8Pragmatics 语用学Speaker’s meaning (utterance or contextual meaning) –the interpretation of a sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. In a word, it depends on the context. The discipline which concentrates on this kind of meaning is called pragmatics.Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事）When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act.Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事）When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something, and the act performed is known as an illocutionary act.Perlocutionary act 取效行为（以言成事）- It refers to the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something,or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce his to do something, etc.- Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.。
Chapter-Morphology--形态学现代语言学
Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。
The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。
前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。
2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table,room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。
Morphology词法,词态学
lexical meaning?
To has only a grammatical "meaning"as an infinitive marker. It is required by the syntactic rules of the language.
3.1 Introduction
What is the most important part of a language?
Words
Words carry meaning. They are the fundamental building blocks of a language. Sentences are made up with different classes of words.
Other derivational morphemes do not change grammatical class,as in
inter + collegiate macro + ecomomics tele + commute multi + media physic + ian Americ + an tour + ism
the meaning of a word.
Distinguish
Simple words: words contain a single morpheme.
Complex words: words contain two or three morpheme.
Morphology形态学PPT课件
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, by which time articulatory phonetics was beginning to make real great progress in the western world, so they feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.
Chapter Two Phonology
1
1. The phonic medium of language
Speech and writing
Speech is more basic than writing. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system is always invented to record
sounds)
7
2.2
Speech organs
8
Three important areas: The pharyngeal cavity (throat) The oral cavity (mouth) The nasal cavity (nose) Larynx
9
10
11
2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds__ broad and narrow transcriptions
语言学-形态学
Function VS. content
Function words (grammatical words):
Conjunction, prepositions, articles, pronouns
Content words (lexical words):
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
Variable word VS. invariable
variable word:
following followed
follow follows mat mat
Invariable word:
when seldom through
since
Morphology (classification)
Represent the concept of tense and aspect, do not change the meaning
cats playing stopped
cat + s play + ing stop + ped
Compound
Compounds--- String words together
playboy cutthroat Sit-down
takehome breakneck beat-up
Compound
Meaning of compound
5Redcoat
5greenhouse
Meaning of word phrase
Red 5coat
green 5house
5_morphology
house, system, cute, do, one, at, the, an
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Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes cannot stand alone and
can only be used as part of a word
re-, non-, mis-, mono-, -ion, -al, -ity, -less
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Morphology
Today‟s topic: Morphology
Literally means „the study of forms‟; originally
used in biology. Now refers to the study of linguistic forms in different languages expressing “the minimal units of meaning”.
What is expressed by suffix in one
language may be expressed by prefix in another language and vice versa
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Example: the morpheme expressing “plural”
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The minimal units of meaning
“They gave it me,” Humpty Dumpty continued, “for an un-birthday present.” “I beg your pardon?” Alice said with a puzzled air. “I‟m not offended,” said Humpty Dumpty. “I mean, what is an un-birthday present?” “A present given when it isn‟t your birthday, of course.” --- Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking-Glass
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1.What is semantics？什么是语义学？Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。
2.Some views concerning the study of meaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)The naming theory 命名论It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。
该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。
2)The conceptualist view 意念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。